The Golden Thirteen

Competency tested inside hostile institutions

World War II reshaped the United States military almost overnight. As the nation mobilized, the Navy expanded rapidly, drawing in tens of thousands of new recruits. Among them were Black men prepared to serve a country that still questioned their place in uniform.

The Golden Thirteen, the first African-American U.S. Navy Officers. Photographed 17 March 1944. They are (bottom row, left to right): Ensign James E. Hare, USNR; Ensign Samuel E. Barnes, USNR; Ensign George C. Cooper, USNR; Ensign William S. White, USNR; Ensign Dennis D. Nelson, USNR; (middle row, left to right): Ensign Graham E. Martin, USNR; Warrant Officer Charles B. Lear, USNR; Ensign Phillip G. Barnes, USNR; Ensign Reginald E. Goodwin, USNR; (top row, left to right): Ensign John W. Reagan, USNR; Ensign Jesse W. Arbor, USNR; Ensign Dalton L. Baugh, USNR; Ensign Frank E. Sublett, USNR. Courtesy of Surface Warfare Magazine, 1982. U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command Photograph.

Service, however, did not mean equality. For Black sailors, entry into the Navy came with rigid limitations rather than opportunity. Competence was demanded, but trust was withheld.

Beginning in 1893, the Navy increasingly restricted African American sailors to the Messmen and Stewards branch — roles that enforced segregation and blocked paths to commissioning. Between 1919 and 1932, Black enlistment was effectively barred altogether. Even when service resumed, advancement into the officer corps remained structurally denied.

Pressure for change did not emerge quietly. Between 1940 and 1944, thousands of Americans protested, wrote letters, and petitioned Congress and the White House, demanding that Black men be allowed to serve on equal terms. In June 1941, Executive Order 8802 — issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt — prohibited racial discrimination by federal agencies and defense contractors. The order marked a shift in federal policy, though not yet in Navy practice.

By April 1942, continued public pressure forced the Navy to allow Black men into general service ratings. Two years later, further advocacy — including pressure from First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and senior Navy leadership — led to a reluctant concession: a small group of Black enlisted men would be permitted to attempt officer training.

Sixteen men were selected.

Most had attended college. Several held advanced degrees. Many were accomplished athletes. All had exemplary service records. Their selection was earned — yet the Navy did not intend for them to succeed.

To ensure failure, the standard sixteen-week officer training program was compressed into eight weeks. The men trained under intense scrutiny, fully aware that their performance would be evaluated not simply as individual achievement, but as evidence for whether others would ever be granted the same opportunity. They studied late into the night in their barracks, knowing that success would be questioned and failure would be taken as confirmation.

They completed the program anyway.

All sixteen men passed. When their results were deemed unbelievable, the entire cohort was ordered to take the examinations again. They passed a second time. Their average score was 3.89.

On March 17, 1944, at Great Lakes, Illinois, thirteen of the sixteen men were commissioned as officers — the first African American commissioned and warrant officers in U.S. Navy history. No explanation was provided for why the remaining three, who had also completed training successfully, were returned to enlisted status.

Even in commissioning, limits remained firmly in place. The Navy barred the new officers from commanding combat ships. Instead, they were assigned to shore-based logistics units, small vessels, and training roles, often tasked with preparing other Black enlisted sailors for service. Recognition had come, but trust had not.

The Golden Thirteen revealed a truth the Navy was not prepared to accept: competence alone was never the barrier — trust was.

Most of the men left the Navy after the war at the rank of Lieutenant Junior Grade (LTJG), a junior commissioned officer rank. Three remained in service and later retired as Lieutenant Commanders (LCDR), a mid-level officer rank. Individually, several went on to distinguished careers in education, law, public service, and athletics, continuing to contribute long after their military service ended.

Institutionally, progress moved more slowly.

The Navy did not fully desegregate until 1948, when President Harry S. Truman ordered the integration of the U.S. armed forces. The Golden Thirteen had proven years earlier that ability was never the issue.

They passed every test placed before them. What followed proved that the hardest standard was never the exam.